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With this config, you can adjust the offset so that the output is mid rail.

Calculate the voltage on the opamp's non-inverting input in a straightforward way, then use your knowledge of the rest of the configuration to relate VOUT to that.

No it is not possible with opamps and resistors. These are linear components and can only implement linear functions of the inputs (so multiplication by a constant, add a value, integrate or different …

It is not necessary that the resistors are equal, but it is usually convenient and often the reasons for choosing a particular value for one set also apply to the other set. Usually in a differential …

As you noted, max. V for spec compliance and reliability is 15 V. Of course the device can survive 18 V, but it is intended that this might be brief (undefined), and is really only defined to be for s …

You can't (easily) test an opamp like that in an open-loop configuration; you need feedback circuits to set the common-mode VOUT range and the (small) differential input signal. Once you simulate with …

It's a full wave rectifier. Feedback for positive inputs is via the 2nd opamp; for negative it is via the diode.

For oscillation to start, the condition is R1 < R/8. Assuming you are just at this point, the oscillation will grow (exponentially) until the 1st (actually any one) opamp start clipping. At this poi …

Be aware that using a thermocouple like this will basically only give you a signal that depends on the temperature difference between the thermocouple tip and the connection to your opamp's input. Th …

Yes, for loop stability you analyze the loop gain (noise gain), not the signal gain. A differentiator may be actually unstable if there are more than 2 poles in the system. Theoretically a simple 2-po …

Depending on the model you use for the opamp, the amplifier's input impedance (and parasitic capacitance) may look like some additional element in parallel with R2, thus increasing the gain.

The NE532 (or any opamp) is not the best part to use for the oscillator portion -- you really need a comparator because the opamp's internal loop compensation slows down its output. In addition, the o …

That opamp (LF353P) only works to within 4 V of the supply rail, so won't work with the 1.5 V negative supply you show. What you need is a rail-rail opamp such as TLV2771 -- see https://www.ti.com/lit …

Even if the common-mode range of the comparator includes ground, the output will be unpredictable in that case because the offset voltage of the comparator may be + or -. When both inputs are equal (0 …

For simplicity, assume R4=R6 and R7=R10. Pin5 of U2B is then (A1 + Temperef)/2. Pin7 of U2B is then 2x this, or A1+tempref. Thus R3 has Tempref across it, no matter what value A1 is, and so acts as a …